Forum Geografi, 31(1), 2017; DOI: 10.23917/forgeo.v31i1.2851
The Relationship between
Total Income and Groundwater Utilization on Fluviomarine Landform Area in
Jakarta
1 Program Studi Pendidikan Geografi, Fakultas
Ilmu Sosial, Universitas Negeri Jakarta, Gedung K Lantai 2, Jalan Rawamangun
Muka Jakarta Timur 13220
2 Fakultas Geografi, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Sekip
Utara Jalan Kaliurang, Bulaksumur, Yogyakarta 55281
*) Corresponding
author (e-mail: cahyadi-setiawanx@unj.ac.id)
Received: 19 December 2016 / Accepted: 17 June 2017 / Published: 01 July
2017
Abstract
Approximately 40% of Jakarta is below sea level when the tide is in, which
is referred to as a fluviomarine landform.
This study aims: (a) to analyse the relationship between total income and
household water demand, and (b) to analyse the relationship between total income and the proportion of groundwater utilisation. It uses quantitative and
qualitative analysis survey methods, as well as sampling methods, to represent
the population. The population of this research is comprised of households that use groundwater
on land units made from two classes of landform, two classes of settlement pattern, and three classes of settlement density. To determine the 30 wells,
samples with proportional random sampling
of the land units formed with groundwater samples have been taken at a radius of 100m from each well sample of 110 households. Quantitative and qualitative
approaches have been used to prove the research aims. The analysis of this
study indicates that the total income is proportional to household water demand
but that it is inversely proportional to the share of groundwater utilisation. The results also show that groundwater
is not the only source to fulfil household water demand, and that it is necessary to utilise
other sources of water.
Keywords: Fluviomarine Landform; Water Demand; Groundwater
Utilization; Jakarta.
Abstrak
Jakarta memiliki 40% wilayah yang berada di bawah permukaan air laut pada saat air pasang, yang secara geomorfologis disebut bentuklahan fluviomarin. Tujuan penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui hubungan antara pendapatan total rumah tangga dengan kebutuhan air dan juga untuk mengetahui hubungan antara pendapatan total rumah tangga dengan proporsi pemanfaatan airtanah bebas untuk memenuhi kebutuhan air rumah tangga pada bentuklahan fluviomarin di Jakarta. Penelitian ini menggunakan survei dengan analisis kuantitatif dan kualitatif serta menggunakan sampel untuk mewakili populasi. Populasi yang diteliti adalah masyarakat pengguna airtanah bebas pada berbagai unitlahan yang dibuat berdasarkan kombinasi dari dua kelas bentuklahan, dua kelas pola permukiman dan tiga kelas kepadatan permukiman, sedangkan untuk menentukan 30 sumur sampel dengan proporsional random sampling dari unitlahan yang terbentuk dengan sampel pengguna airtanah diambil pada radius 100 m dari masing-masing sumur sampel yaitu sebanyak 110 rumah tangga. Pendekatan kuantitatif dan kualitatif dengan korelasi non-parametrik digunakan untuk menjawab semua tujuan penelitian. Hasil analisis menunjukkan bahwa semakin besar pendapatan total semakin besar kebutuhan air rumahtangga. Semakin besar pendapatan total semakin kecil proporsi pemanfaatan airtanah untuk memenuhi kebutuhan air rumah tangga. Hasil penelitian juga menunjukkan bahwa airtanah bukan satu-satunya sumber pemenuhan kebutuhan air rumah tangga, maka perlu diupayakan untuk menambah sumber pemenuhan kebutuhan air selain dari airtanah.
Kata kunci: Bentuklahan Fluviomarin;
Kebutuhan Air; Pemanfaatan Airtanah; Jakarta.
Introduction
The population of Jakarta grew 4.4% between 2000 and 2010, increasing
from 8.3 million to 9.6 million, and the city accounted for 1.41% of the
population growth rate. This condition has resulted in an increase in habitation that will generally reduce the amount of open space (Badan
Pusat Statistik, 2010). Jakarta experienced a rapid development of land-use
change, from a vegetation region into a developed region. The increasing number
of residential developments, industrial and office areas, and infrastructure
facilities to support the activities, have
exploited many areas. The increase in population density has caused an excessive
exploitation of groundwater, which still
continues. The establishment of regional development and groundwater
exploitation caused an intensification of land subsidence, caused by natural
and human factors (Abidin et al., 2011).
Jakarta is called a
kampong city, where 60% of the city consists
of informal settlements. Most of the settlements in Jakarta have a high density
of 600 peoples per hectare. These settlements grow naturally without any clear
control and direction even to the riverbanks or around the railways, and are
inhabited by people who are generally in the middle to lower economic
classes. Village relocation from riparian areas has been a prolonged problem
since the 1990s (Steinberg, 2007). When housing
prices are not affordable, informal settlements become the most realistic
option (Zhu and Simarmata, 2015). Population
concentration has resulted in the inevitable and excessive exploitation of
groundwater (Abidin et
al., 2011; Setiawan et al., 2011).
The city of Jakarta
grew over a very long period of time and
became a silent witness to development in Indonesia (Hutabarat,
2002; Hutabarat Lo, 2010). It has become the
largest metropolitan city, as well as the most
dense and important city in
Indonesia, being the centre of state administration and business (Steinberg, 2007; Firman, 2009;
Brunn et al.,
2012). The city of Jakarta also plays an
important role in national and international trade, becoming an
investment centre for foreign investors, not only in manufacturing but also
construction and service. This has boosted
Jakarta’s economy and has made it a popular
site of urbanisation. Economic and social
changes have also had an impact on changing land use patterns. Settlements in
downtown Jakarta have turned into commercial areas, offices, and elite
settlements such as apartments. In addition,
the expansion of the city of Jakarta has caused several major problems such as
congestion, slums, environmental pollution, and an increasing gap between the rich and poor, while the management and
planning of the city still needs to be
addressed. Development in downtown Jakarta influences the development of
satellite cities in the vicinity such as Depok, Bogor, Tangerang and Bekasi. These
satellite cities grew in terms of service,
residential and industrial sectors, in order to
support the city of Jakarta (Steinberg, 2007; Brunn et al., 2012).
Approximately 40%
of Jakarta below sea level when the tide is in, in addition to the presence of coastal
swamps, which increase the possibility of floods (Gunawan,
2010). This region is called a fluviomarine landform (Marsoedi et al., 1997), as it is influenced by fluvial
as well as marine processes (Tamod et al., 2016). Floods in Jakarta occur in the basin, alluvial
plains and coastal environments (Aerts et al., 2009; Marfai
et al., 2009; Ward
et al., 2010; Marfai et al.,
2013). Utilisation of urban space
with physical development and a significant increase in population, can also affect the repeated periods of flood-stricken
areas. Land conditions with borders of land in the form of floods are not
suitable for developing regions, and have been
designated as wetlands used to hold water during floods since the 1960s;
until now, however, such areas have been utilised
for various purposes of the city. The channel system was unsuccessful due to
Jakarta's flat topography, meaning that water could not flow by gravity alone.
The presence of mud sedimentation also clogged the water flow, so the channel
development is only to tackle the flood in a moment (Gunawan,
2010; Sakethi, 2010). This condition is coupled with the infiltration of water into
the soil and very low permeability (Pramono, 2016).The
results of flood scenario modelling in Jakarta show that the use of land has
increasingly affected settlements, with widespread floods with that have also exhibited an increasing depth (Marfai et al.,
2013). Tamod et al. (2016) mentioned that this area might be the meeting point
of rain water (runoff and percolation) and
sea water, which allows the entry of sea water to fill the aquifer.
This study is
important because population growth and Gross Regional Domestic Product (GRDP)
tend to increase over time, followed by an increase in water demand. The level
of prosperity in Jakarta is relatively higher than other provinces in Indonesia, and shows positive economic growth.
Jakarta's GRDP was 125,533.8 in 2011 and increased to 174,824.1 in 2014. This is also
reinforced by the reduction of the unemployment rate in Jakarta, which was
10.83% in 2011 and dropped to 9.84% in 2014 (Bappenas,
2015). During the last three years, households consuming plumbing and
bottled water have continued to increase to more than 85% (BPS
Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2015). The use of groundwater through drilling wells
and pantek
wells in Jakarta is still high. This has an impact on land subsidence, which
poses a serious threat to Jakarta
residents. The amount of use of groundwater from drilling wells and pantek
wells in 2014 was 8,850,144 m3
from 4,473 wells. This is an increase
from 7,864,787 m3 from 4,231 well points in 2011 (BPS Provinsi DKI Jakarta, 2016).
Groundwater
contamination is generally caused by human activity. The higher the
level of human activity in a place, the higher the level of household waste
produced and if not properly managed, this can cause a decrease in groundwater
quality (Takem et al.,
2009; Bahar et
al., 2010; Rani and Sasidhar, 2010; Akoteyon et al.,
2011; Hastuti and Wardiha 2012; Strohschön et al.,
2012; Affum et
al., 2015). The sewage channel is the main cause of water contamination in Jakarta. This is due to the lack, or inadequacy, of
facilities capable of handling the vast
level of waste disposal, both from domestic and industrial activities. Agricultural
activities in upstream areas also increase water pollution in the form of
pesticide and fertiliser sedimentation. This has impacted the condition of Jakarta Bay
as the most polluted bay in Indonesia (Kantor Menteri Negara
Lingkungan Hidup, 1997). In addition,
excessive groundwater extraction in the coastal areas of Jakarta has led to seawater intrusion (Onodera
et al., 2008; Setiawan et al.,
2010).
The study
demonstrated a relationship between the magnitude of water demand and the
increase in the total household income. Similarly, modelling the relationship
between total household income and the proportion of groundwater utilisation for the fulfilment of household
water demand can illustrate the proportion
of groundwater utilisation in line with
the increase in the total household income. Therefore, this study has two
objectives: to analyse the relationship between total income and household water demand; and to analyse the relationship
between total income and the proportion
of groundwater utilisation.
Research Method
Study Area
The fluviomarine
landform in Jakarta is located in the
northern part of Jakarta (6º5’13”–6 º14’5” S and 106 º41’9”–106 º58’42” E), as presented in Figure
1.The region is in the form of alluvial plains and beach ridges that are often hit by floods and groundwater
contamination caused by human activity and sea water intrusion. In this
situation, there are many households that still
use groundwater.
Figure
1. Research Location
Datasets and Collection
The groundwater
referred to in this study is the unconfined aquifer. This study uses a survey
research design, because the symptom is
an empirical symptom or symptoms that already exist. The object studied is the
characteristics of an object: the households that use groundwater. The population of
this research consist of the households that used groundwater on land units
made from two classes of landform, two classes
of settlement pattern, and three classes
of settlement density. To determine the 30 wells, samples with proportional random sampling of the land units
formed with groundwater samples were taken
at a radius of 100m from each well sample
of 110 households. The primary data was conducted twice through interviews,
during the dry season in August 2015 and the rainy season in January 2016.
Analysis
The data was analysed
using quantitative and qualitative techniques. The quantitative analysis technique
was used for describing data input, the
percentage of respondents’ answers, and non-parametric correlation analysis.
The qualitative analysis technique was used to interpret the results of the
non-parametric correlation. The results of this research will be discussed alongside the findings of other
research projects.
Results and Discussion
Total Household
Income
The total household
income is the total income of all employed
household members. The average total household income is over 3.2 million rupiah
(Rp). The greater the total household income, the more household needs can be
fulfilled, including the household water demand. The small number of households
that usually work in the informal sector, such as food stall, are self-employed
households with a below minimum income in Jakarta. This group still depends on groundwater
for most sources of water supply. This is
in line with the statements of Muta'ali (2012) that
the level of income affects the amount of water demand. Revenue is one of the
parameters used to determine the socio-economic conditions of households.
Increased economic capacity of the community will increase the water demand,
along with the facilities owned and the increasing demands of life. According
to Yunus (1987), relatively homogeneous socio-economic conditions usually appear in a single
unit of residential environment. The total
household income based on the type of settlement is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Total Household Income Based on Type of Settlement
Type of Settlement |
Total Household Income (IDR
000,000) |
Total |
||||
< 3.2 |
3.2 – 6.4 |
6.4 – 9.6 |
9.6 – 12.8 |
> 12.8 |
||
Organic
settlements |
14 |
40 |
26 |
5 |
1 |
86 |
Planned house |
1 |
5 |
9 |
4 |
5 |
24 |
Total |
15 |
45 |
35 |
9 |
6 |
110 |
Household Water
Demand
The household water
demand is the amount of water needed to fulfil the various needs of households’
daily activities. The water demand increases with the increasing number of
household members. The total household water demand depends on the number of
household members and the various purposes of demand. The increase in the
number of household members results in an increase in household water demand. Likewise,
the increased in the needs to be
fulfilled results in an increase in household water demand. Household water
demand in the dry season is approximately more than in the rainy season. This is
associated with a number of activities
that are carried out only in the dry season, such as watering the yard and
gardening. However, households that are often
flooded have a greater demand for household water needs in the rainy season
especially the increase in water needed
to clean house following flooding. There are two types of household water
demands, namely nuclear families who need less than 300 litres/day and extended
families who need more than 900 litres/day. The average household water demands
according to the various needs are presented
in Table 2.
Table 2. The Average Household Water Demands According to Various Needs
Requirement |
Water Demand
(litres/person/day) |
|
Dry |
Rainy |
|
Cooking |
3.00 |
3.00 |
Drinking |
2.50 |
2.50 |
Raw material
washing |
2.50 |
2.50 |
Cookware and
cutlery washing |
10.00 |
10.00 |
Bathing and
brushing of teeth |
55.00 |
55.00 |
Ablutions |
10.00 |
10.00 |
Laundry |
15.00 |
15.00 |
House
cleaning |
5.00 |
5.00 |
Vehicle
washing |
8.00 |
8.00 |
Yard watering |
2.00 |
0.00 |
Gardening |
2.00 |
0.00 |
Toilet usage |
20.00 |
20.00 |
Other |
20.00 |
20.00 |
Total |
155.00 |
151.00 |
The results of this
research indicate that the water demand is much higher than the limit set by
The National Standardization Agency of Indonesia (Badan
Standardisasi Nasional, 2002), whereby the use of water for city residents is set at 120 litres/person/day (lpd). Compared to Wardhana’s (2004) finding that the total water requirement is 150 lpd, the findings of this research show a
little more than 155 lpd during the dry
season and 151 lpd in the rainy season.
The greatest water requirement is to meet the need for baths and the brushing
of teeth, while the smallest demand is for watering the yard and gardening, which
is only done during the dry season.
The total water
demand in the dry season is higher than in the rainy season. This is consistent with the statement of
Linsley and Franzini (1972) that water demand will
be greater in warm, dry climates than in humid climates. This is related to the types of water needs in
the dry season that require more water,
such as watering the yard and plants. The total water demand, in both dry and
rainy seasons, is between 134 – 172 lpd,
with an average of 155 lpd in the dry
season and 151 lpd in the rainy season. The
average total of water needs of household members in the organic settlements
was smaller compared to the planned houses. People who live in planned houses
have more use for water because of many types of need, such as washing motor
vehicles (including households that own multiple vehicles) and watering the
wider yard. If water usage is reviewed with
regards to settlement density, it is observed
that high-density settlements tended to useless
water than medium- or low-density settlements, because the watered yards were narrower
and contained fewer plants.
Sources of
Household Water Demand Fulfilment
Sources of water
demand fulfilment are not only from groundwater but also from rainwater,
drinking water companies, water carts, and bottled water. Rainwater is
collected in advance, in a tub, from the roof, to fulfil various purposes.
Drinking water companies use water from Perusahaan
Air Minum Jakarta Raya (PAM Jaya), which is distributed to households
through pipelines at a price of IDR 7,200.00/M3. Water waggons come from drinking water companies and are first stationed in one place before
distributing water to homes that do not have a drinking water company network,
with carts consisting of 10 jerry cans with
10 litres of capacity each, at a price of IDR 3,000.00/jerry can. The source of
bottled water is gallons that come from the factories at the cost of IDR 16,000.00,
and gallon water refills cost IDR 6,000.00. Prices fluctuate for cart water and
bottled water, depending on the distance from the base to the house, and the
amount of source available. The sources of household water demand fulfilment are
based on various purposes, as presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Sources of Household Water Demand Fulfilment Based On Various Purposes
Requirement |
Sources of Water Demand Fulfilment |
||||
Rainwater |
Ground-water |
PAM Jaya |
Water carts |
Bottled water |
|
Cooking |
|
* |
** |
*** |
* |
Drinking |
|
|
* |
* |
***** |
Raw material washing |
|
*** |
*** |
* |
|
Cookware and cutlery washing |
|
**** |
** |
|
|
Bathing and brushing of teeth |
|
**** |
*** |
|
|
Ablutions |
|
**** |
** |
|
|
Laundry |
|
***** |
** |
|
|
House cleaning |
* |
***** |
* |
|
|
Vehicle washing |
|
***** |
* |
|
|
Yard watering |
|
***** |
|
|
|
Gardening |
* |
**** |
|
|
|
Toilet usage |
|
**** |
*** |
|
|
Other |
|
***** |
* |
|
|
Note :
* |
The
least(< 20 respondents) |
** |
Less (20 – 40
respondents) |
*** |
Moderate (40
– 60 respondents) |
**** |
More (60 – 80
respondents) |
***** |
The Most
(> 80 respondents) |
The least number of
households that still use groundwater for cooking are in organic settlements. Most respondents use bottled water for drinking and a few still use drinking water companies
and water carts. Bottled water is used
for drinking through more practical methods such as a dispenser. In addition, groundwater is still predominantly
used to fulfil various household purposes that do not involve direct consumption,
such as for sewage and cleaning the house. There were various household water
fulfilment sources, indicating that groundwater is no longer able to fulfil the
demand for household water.
There are seven
source types of water demand fulfilment (Table 4). All of
the types can be found in organic settlements, whereas in planned houses, only
type 2 and type 4 can be found. This indicates that the organic settlement has a
more heterogeneous community, having more
types of water need fulfilment, while planned
houses are usually inhabited by a more homogeneous community. There are three source types of water demand fulfilment
that exist only on organic settlements in the dry season (type 1, type 3
and type 5), while in the rainy season, these are type 1, type 3, type 5, type
6 and type 7. The use of rainwater had started to be used in households for house cleaning and watering pot plants. Although Kodoatie (2005) is of the opinion that the water requirement can be fulfilled by groundwater or surface water,
this research shows that rainwater has been used to fulfil most household water
needs.
Table 4. Source Type of Household Water Fulfilment in Rainy Season Based on Type of Settlement
Type of Settlement |
Source of Household Water
Demand Fulfilment |
Total |
||||||
Type 1 |
Type 2 |
Type 3 |
Type 4 |
Type 5 |
Type 6 |
Type 7 |
||
Organic settlement |
8 |
13 |
3 |
24 |
30 |
6 |
2 |
86 |
Planned house |
0 |
1 |
0 |
23 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
24 |
Total |
8 |
14 |
3 |
47 |
30 |
6 |
2 |
110 |
Note :
Type 1 = Groundwater and water carts
Type 2 = Groundwater and bottled water
Type 3 = Groundwater and drinking
water company
Type 4 = Groundwater, bottled water, and drinking water company
Type 5 = Groundwater, water carts, and bottled water
Type 6 = Groundwater, bottled water, and rainwater
Type 7 =
Groundwater, bottled water, water carts, and rainwater
The Proportion
of Groundwater Utilisation to Fulfil the Household Water Demand
Household water
demand fulfilment comes from a combination of groundwater, bottled water, water
carts, drinking water companies, and rainwater. The proportion of groundwater utilisation is
known by calculating the total water requirements jointly fulfilled from
various sources. Households in organic settlements tend to have a greater
proportion of groundwater utilisation
compared to planned houses. High-density settlements also have a tendency to
have a larger proportion of groundwater utilisation compared to low-density
settlements. The proportion of
groundwater utilisation in the dry season
ranges from 5.32% to 98.85%, while in the rainy season this ranges from 4.74%
to 98.78%. When compared to the research of
Kodoatie and Sjarief (2008), which posits that 80%
of the urban water supply of urban communities is derived from groundwater, the
results of this study indicate that there are similarities in organic
settlement households, where the proportion of groundwater used to meet the
need for clean water is still large, many of which are proportionally larger
than 80%. In contrast to the proportion
of groundwater utilisation in planned
houses, however, few still use groundwater (< 20%). The proportion of groundwater utilisation that meets the total water demand
based on the type of settlement, is
presented in Table 5.
Type of Settlement |
Proportion of Groundwater
Utilization (%) |
Total |
||||
< 20 |
20 – 40 |
40 – 60 |
60 – 80 |
> 80 |
||
Organic |
7 |
6 |
5 |
2 |
66 |
86 |
Planned house |
15 |
6 |
2 |
0 |
1 |
24 |
Total |
22 |
12 |
7 |
2 |
67 |
110 |
Trends in the
proportion of groundwater utilisation in
organic settlements are still great, and
many use groundwater. This condition is visible in the areas of Grogol,
Petamburan and Kemayoran where groundwater is
still utilised by many households whose proportion of water utilisation is still large. The water level in the area is concave and below sea level. This means that the intake and utilisation of groundwater in this area is still high. The decrease of water level indicates a change from the
effluent river to the influent river. This
is similar to that of Ahmad et al.
(2009), who argue that the decrease of water level also occurs in the urban
settlements near Kahota industrial
triangle area, Islamabad, Pakistan.
Figure 2. Spatial Distribution of Groundwater Utilization and Water Level
Relationship
between Total Income and Domestic Water Demand
The results of the correlation
analysis with SPSS demonstrate a relationship between total monthly household income and household water demand per day,
based on the season. Based on the results
of the correlation it is known that correlation coefficients (r count) are 0.593
and 0.586 in the dry season and the rainy season, respectively. The r count
value is compared to the r table with the
error level of 1% (99% of confidence level), and N = 110. The r table value for
N = 110, which is located between the r table for N = 100 (i.e. 0.256) and N =
125 (i.e. 0.230). Evidently, both r count values are greater than the r table
value, so that Ho is rejected and Ha is
accepted. There is a significant positive relationship (p = 0.000), with moderate level of relationship (r count is
between 0.40 and 0.599) between the total household income and the need for
household water in the dry and rainy seasons. This
means that the larger the total monthly household income, the greater the water
needs of the household.
The determinant
coefficient is obtained from the square
of the correlation coefficient (r2), which is 0.35 and 0.34 in the
dry and rainy seasons, respectively. This
means that variants occurring in the variable of household water demand per day
can be explained by variants that occur
in the variable of total household income
per month, which is 0.35 and 0.34 in the dry and rainy seasons.
Figure 3. The Relationship Model between Income and Total Household Water Demand
There is a
relationship model between the total monthly household income and household water demand, whereby the greater the total household
income per month, the greater the household water demand. The increase in total
household income does not automatically increase the water demand, but an
increase in total household income results in an increased ownership of
valuables such as motorcycles and cars, and increased ownership of such items
results in an increase in total household water demand. As previous studies
have demonstrated, there is a relationship between income and total household water
demand (Linsey and Franzini, 1972; Domene and Sauri´, 2006; March and
Sauri´, 2010; March et al., 2012). Water consumption
is influenced by economic status; consumption per capita in poor areas
is much lower than in richer regions. Rising prosperity and the welfare of the
population will increase the demand for water.
This level of water
consumption is still far below the United States, which has an average of
378.54 lpd (Mack and
Wrase, 2017), while Canada has a water consumption level of 769 lpd (Chenoweth, 2008).
This research shows that the minimum water usage of 134 lpd is already far above the estimate Gleick (1996),
which is 50 lpd, but almost the same as
that expressed by Saurí (2003), 131 lpd, and Chappells and Medd (2008), 130 lpd.
The research findings indicate that the greatest water needs are as high as 172
lpd. This
is almost the same level as found in research on the metropolitan region of
Barcelona, 178 lpd (Saurí, 2003), but is still far below England’ level of 190
lpd (Chappells
and Medd, 2008).
Relationship between
Total Income and Proportion of Groundwater Utilization to Fulfil Households
Water Demand
The results of the correlation
analysis with SPSS demonstrate a relationship between total household monthly
income and the proportion of groundwater utilisation used to fulfil the household water
demand based on the seasons. Based on the
results of the correlation between the total monthly household income and the
proportion of groundwater utilisation to
fulfil household water demand, it is known
that correlation coefficients (r count) are -0.501 and -0.494 in the dry and
rainy season, respectively. The r count value is
compared to the r table with the error level of 1% (99% of confidence
level), and N = 110. The r table value for N = 110 is located between r tables
at N = 100 and N = 125, which are 0.256 and 0.230, respectively. Evidently,
both r count values are greater than the value of the r tables, so that Ho is rejected and Ha is accepted. In conclusion,
there is a significant negative correlation (p = 0.000) with a moderate
relationship level (r count is between 0.40 and 0.599) between the total
monthly household income and the proportion of groundwater utilisation needed to fulfil the household
water demand in the dry and rainy seasons. This
means that the larger the total household income, the smaller the proportion of
groundwater utilisation needed to fulfil
the household water demand.
The determinant
coefficient is obtained from the square
of the correlation coefficient (r2) which is 0.25 and 0.24 in the
dry season and rainy season, respectively. This
means that variants that occur in the proportion of groundwater utilisation variable can be explained by variants that occur in the variable
of total monthly household income, which is 0.25 and 0.24 in the dry and rainy
seasons.
Figure 4. The Relationship Model between Household Income and the Proportion of Groundwater Utilization Needed to Fulfil Household Water Demand
The magnitude of
this standard deviation relates to the large
variation in the proportion of
groundwater utilisation at the same
income level. In addition to income, habit factors also play a large role in selecting sources of household
water fulfilment. There is a relationship model between total monthly household
income and the proportion of groundwater utilisation
to fulfil the household water demand, where the greater the total household
income per month, the smaller the proportion
of groundwater utilisation to fulfil the
household water demand. Increased revenue affects households' ability to choose
alternative sources of water in addition to groundwater, such as drinking water
companies, water carts, and bottled water. Fulfilling water needs through
sources other than groundwater has resulted in increased household expenditure on
water; for example, drinking water companies charge IDR 7,200/m3;
water carts charge IDR 3,000/jerry can; and
bottled water cost IDR 16,000/gallon. The groundwater cost is included in the cost of electricity, as part
of water pump operations.
The result is
consistent with that expressed by Kamulyan (1996), that the types of sources ranging from
raw water to clean water can come from rainwater, surface water, and
groundwater; however, this study did not find surface water to be a source of
water fulfilment. The use of excessive groundwater in coastal cities has caused
seawater intrusion. Seawater intrusion has in turn caused
the contamination of groundwater, resulting in decreased quality (Park et al., 2011;
Chandrasekar et
al., 2013; Jayalakshmi et al., 2014). One of the factors contributing to the use of excessive
groundwater is the influence of urbanisation
(Onodera et al.,
2008; Hastuti and Wardiha, 2011).
Conclusion and Recommendation
Total income was
proportional to water demand but inversely proportional to the share of groundwater
utilisation on fluviomarine landform in
Jakarta. Groundwater was not the only source to fulfil water demand, and it was
necessary to utilise other sources of
water. Groundwater is unable to
fulfil all household water demands; therefore, rainwater becomes an alternative
source of fulfilling the water demand. Additional sources are needed to fulfil
both the government and the community’s demand for water, such as expanding the
PAM network to areas not currently served by PAM services, and the construction
of rainwater treatment plants (IPAH).
Acknowledgements
We would like to
thank all of the research assistants who helped to gather fieldwork data. We
also thank the anonymous reviewers for comments on this manuscript.
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