Forum Geografi, 31(1), 2017; DOI: 10.23917/forgeo.v31i1.3236
Specific Peak Discharge
of Two Catchments Covered by Teak Forest with Different Area Percentages
*) Correspondingauthor (email:
tmbasuki@yahoo.com)
Received: 24January 2017 /
Accepted: 30March 2017 / Published: 01
July 2017
Abstract
In a watershed, forest has important roles in relation with peak discharge. This research was conducted to study the impacts of teak forest on peak discharge. On-screen digitising of IKONOS imagery was done to classify the land cover of the study area. Kejalen and Gagakan catchments covered by 74% and 53% of old teak forests respectively, were chosen as the study areas.These catchments are located in Blora Regency. Automatic water level recorder was set at the outlet of each catchment subsequently, and peak discharges were examined from the recorded data. During the observation, there were 36 evidences of specific peak discharge. The results showed that a trend of lower peak discharges occurred in Kejalen catchment which has the higher percentage of teak forest area in compared to Gagakan catchment with lower percentage of teak forest area, except when extreme rainfalls happened. At rainfall of 163 mm/day, specific peak discharge in Kejalen was higher than in Gagakan catchment. Although there is a relationship between specific peak discharge and the percentage of forest cover area, the increase of specific peak discharge is not only affected by forest cover, but also affected by daily rainfall, antecedent soil moisture, and rainfall intensity. Coefficients of determination between specific peak discharge and daily rainfall are 0.64 and 0.61 for Kejalen and Gagakan catchments, respectively.
Keywords: Peak discharge, teak forest, catchment.
Abstrak
Persentase penutupan hutan
Daerah Aliran Sungai (DAS) berperanan penting dalam menentukan puncak debit. Oleh
karena itu telah dilakukan penelitian yang bertujuan untuk mempelajari pengaruh
hutan jati (Tectona grandis) terhadap puncak debit. Klasifikasi penutupan lahan
dilakukan dengan digitasi secara langsung pada citra IKONOS. Dua sub-DAS yaitu Kejalen dan Gagakan yang
masing-masing arealnya tertutup hutan jati tua sebesar 74 dan 53% dari luas sub-DAS
dipilih sebagai areal penelitian. Secara administrasi kedua sub-DAS tersebut terletak
di Kabupaten Blora. Pencatat tinggi muka air sungai otomatis dipasang pada
masing-masing outlet sub-DAS. Selama penelitian diperoleh 36 kenaikan debit
yang disebabkan oleh curah hujan 12 hingga 163 mm/hari. Hasil yang diperoleh menunjukkan
terjadi kecenderungan pada sub-DAS yang mempunyai hutan jati lebih banyak
(Kejalen) puncak debit kurang dibandingan sub-DAS yang persentase hutannya
lebih rendah (Gagakan), kecuali pada curah hujan ekstrem. Pada hujan 163
mm/hari, puncak debit di sub-DAS Kejalen lebih tinggi daripada di sub-DAS
Gagakan. Walaupun terdapat hubungan antara puncak debit dengan luas penutupan
hutan, tetapi kenaikan debit puncak tidak saja dipengaruhi penutupan hutan,
tetapi juga oleh hujan harian, kelembaban tanah sebelum terjadi puncak debit,
dan intensitas hujan. Koefisien determinasi antara puncak debit dan hujan
harian di sub-DAS Kejalen adalah 0,64 dan 0,61 di sub-DAS Gagakan.
Kata Kunci: Puncak debit spesifik, hutan jati, Daerah
Aliran Sungai (DAS).
Introduction
Hydrological responses
of catchments are affected by the natural and management factors. The natural
aspects are catchment size (Birkinshaw & Bathurst, 2011; Asfaha et al.,
2015), geomorphology and soil types (Ayalew et al.,
2014; Geris et al.,
2014), and geological formation (Stoelzle et al.,
2014; Vannier et
al., 2014). In addition,
rainfall and its components is a main natural factor due to its role as an
input for water resources such as catchments or watersheds. Flood generation in
small watershed is intensively affected
by rainfall (Anna et al.,
2011; Paschalis et al., 2014). Besides natural factors, land management, e.g.
land cover, is also a determinant factor that controls water intake of a
watershed (Asfaha et
al., 2015).
Furthermore, Brown et al. (2015) emphasised that in a forested catchment, there are two main factors that influence the hydrological
behaviour, namely climatic condition and forest cover changes. In a small
catchment, the natural factors, such as climate, geology, soil type, and topography,
are relatively the same, consequently, the
change of land cover or forest cover will influence the stream flow (Isik et al., 2013). Junaidi &
Tarigan (2011) in their modelling
using Soil Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) have found that forests less effect on peak discharges for watersheds with area between 100 and 500 km2, however, the
forests more influence in regulating stream water continuity
and reducing peak discharge.
Research of the
impact of forest on water yield has been
conducted for long time, however,
the results are vary. A negative correlation between the increase
forest areas and peak flow, and conversely, a positive
correlation between the decrease of forest areas (Birkinshaw & Bathurst, 2011). A
similar results has been found by (Iroumé et al.,
2006) in Southern Chile. Based on data from 1997 to
2002 (Iroumé et al.,
2006), have found that change in peak discharge is
not only affected by forest cover areas, however
it is also influenced by rainfall
characteristics.
Although impacts of forest cover on peak discharge have been
examined by several researchers, but they mostly focused their
investigation on boreal and temperate regions, for instance in pine plantations
(Bosch & Hewlett, 1982; Scott
& Lesch, 1997; Iroumé et al.,
2013; Du et al.,
2015). Meanwhile, studies on the impacts
of teak (Tectona grandis) on the hydrological
behaviours of catchments are hardly found.
In addition, teak plantation has a unique characteristic in which the trees shed
their leaves during the dry season in order to
reduce transpiration. Therefore, this research was conducted to determine the impacts
of different percentages of teak forest area on the hydrological responses in
two catchments.
Research
Methods
Description of
the Study Area
The study was conducted in two catchments with different percentages of teak forest area.
The first was Kejalen catchment and the
second was Gagakan catchment which,
respectively, 74% and 53% of their areas are covered with old teak forest. Field check
was carried out in August and November 2016. The forest areas are included in the Forest Management Unit (KPH) of Cepu.
Administratively, the study area is situated
in Blora Regency. The dominant soil type in the study area is Vertisols. The
characteristics of the catchments are presented
in Table 1. In addition,
the data of monthly rainfall of the study area, from 2011 to 2015, is provided
in Table 2.
Table 1. The Characteristics of the Catchments
Catchment |
Area (km2) |
Catchment Shape |
Drainage Density (km/km2) |
Average Slope |
Geology |
Kejalen |
20,14 |
Circular |
2,18 |
26 |
Limestone |
Gagakan |
64,80 |
Circular |
1,86 |
22 |
Limestone |
Source: Pramono and Wahyuningrum (2010).
Table 2. Monthly Rainfall of the Study Area.
Year |
Monthly Rainfall (mm) |
||||||||||||
Jan |
Feb |
Mar |
Apr |
May |
Jun |
Jul |
Aug |
Sep |
Oct |
Nov |
Dec |
Total |
|
2011 |
198 |
142 |
146 |
48 |
72 |
6 |
1 |
0 |
20 |
92 |
345 |
295 |
1365 |
2012 |
189 |
135 |
145 |
42 |
130 |
41 |
0 |
0 |
4 |
35 |
308 |
280 |
1309 |
2013 |
183 |
145 |
137 |
160 |
89 |
92 |
50 |
0 |
5 |
20 |
83 |
229 |
1193 |
2014 |
195 |
156 |
201 |
179 |
130 |
102 |
14 |
0 |
5 |
28 |
121 |
241 |
1372 |
2015 |
172 |
388 |
288 |
275 |
46 |
12 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
0 |
53 |
148 |
1382 |
Avg |
188 |
193 |
183 |
141 |
93 |
50 |
13 |
0 |
7 |
35 |
182 |
239 |
1324 |
Data Collection
The data of
rainfall was obtained by using an automatic
and conventional rain gauges. Stream
water level was recorded by using two automatic
water level recorders (loggers). The loggers were
installed in the outlet of Kejalen
and Gagakan catchments as illustrated in Figure 1. The Gagakan
catchment is located below Kejalen
catchment. The stream water level was set to record every five minutes. Rainfall
was recorded using automatic rainfall recorder.The land cover map was derived from IKONOS imagery of Google Earth
2015. All of the data were measured and analysed by the research team.
To
obtain characteristics of the teak stands, field measurements were conducted
in November 2015. A purposive sampling was applied to obtain information of stand characteristics of the old and young
teak plantation. The sample plot was 20
by 20 m, and inside the plots were measured diameter
at breast height (DBH), free branch
height, total height and projected canopy width.The projected of canopy height was measured from two directions, which were
North–South and East–West. All of the data were measured by the researchers team.
Figure 1. The Rivers and Outlets
of the Kejalen Catchment and Gagakan Catchment.
Data Analysis
Rainfall intensity
was analysed based on the recording paper (pias paper) of the automatic rainfall
gauge. The rainfall intensity of every recorded rainfall event was calculated and it was represented in mm/hour unit. When the duration of rainfall
event was less than one hour the rainfall
intensity was calculated by converting the amount of rainfall during rainfall
event into an hour unit.
The logger recorded
the stream water level for every 5 minutes. To
obtain the discharge data, the data of stream water level was converted by using rating curve equation.
The equations are:
Kejalen Catchment
Q = 1.41H2.62, for H <1.2
Q = 1.10H2.19, for H>1.2
Gagakan Catchment
Q = 9.28H2.00
Where
Q = Discharge (m3/second)
H = Stream water level (m).
After the conversion
of stream water level into discharge, the rainfall events that showed the
phenomenon of increased discharge were classified. Subsequently, the highest
discharge of each rainfall was considered
as the peak discharge for the corresponding date. The peak discharge for Kejalen catchment was in m3/
second/20.14km2 and for Gagakan
catchment was in m3/second/64.80km2. To compare the peak
discharge of the catchments with different areas, the unit of peak discharge (m3/second/unit
area of the catchment) was divided based on area
of the each catchment. The resulted unit was in m3/second/km2
and the common term is specific peak discharge. Furthermore, the specific
discharge data from the two catchments were
compared. Regression analysis was
conducted between the daily rainfall and the specific peak discharge. In addition, the regression was also done between daily rainfall and discharge as conducted by Asfaha et al. (2014) in their research. In this
study, we referred to Robinson et al.
(2003) who reaffirmed that peak discharge is not necessarily the peak discharge
that causes over-bank flooding. Furthermore, the Antecedent Soil Moisture
Content (ASMC) is calculated from the
amount of rainfall during 5 (five) days before the peak discharge occurs as suggested
by Dune and Leopold (1978).
The image from
Google Earth was classified into several
cover types, which are old and young teak forests, paddy field (sawah),
dry land agriculture, shrub, water body, mixed garden, and settlement. During
the classification the teak forest was differentiated
into old and young teak forest. The data from the forest inventory were averaged and presented in Tables.
Results and
Discussion
Land cover of
the study area
Spatial
distribution of land cover derived from IKONOS imagery can be seen in Figure 2. In addition to the old
teak forest, the catchments are also covered
by young teak forest, paddy field, dry land agriculture, and settlement. At Kejalen catchment, those land cover types occupy
74%; 23%; 0%; 2.1%; and 0.6% of the catchment area, respectively. Meanwhile, at
Gagakan catchment, the coverage of old
teak forest, young teak forest, paddy field, dry land agriculture, and settlement
are 53%; 23%; 1%; 20%; and3 % of the catchment area, respectively.The
characteristics of the old teak stand are
presented in Table 3 and the young teak at Table 4. The data were
obtained from field measurement in 2015. Based on Table
3 and 4, it can be
observed that the diameter of old teak has been reach more than 28 cm, while the young teak plantations from
the sample plots have diameter at breast
height (DBH) range from 8 to 16.6 cm.
The projected
canopy of the old stands are wider than
the young ones. At the old teak forest, the projected
canopy width reaches more than 10 m, however, at the young teak forest the widest
is 7.8 m. The density of canopy will influence the evapotranspiration of trees,
and therefore it will affect water yield (Igarashi et al.,
2015). According to Bruijnzeel (2004), the older the trees
the higher the evapotranspiration.
Figure 2. Spatial
Distribution of Land Cover of the Study Area.
Table 3. The Characteristic of Old Teak Plantation
Plot Number |
Diameter
at Breast Height (cm) |
Average
Free Branch Height (m) |
Average
Total Height (m) |
Average of
Projected Canopy Width |
1 |
32.4 |
6,9 |
18.5 |
6.8 |
2 |
49.2 |
16.3 |
23.5 |
10.2 |
3 |
28.8 |
10.8 |
19.9 |
5.9 |
Table 4. The Characteristic of Young Teak Plantation
Plot Number |
Diameter
at Breast Height (cm) |
Average
Free Branch Height (m) |
Average
Total Height (m) |
Average of
Projected Canopy Width |
1 |
10.5 |
2.6 |
7.8 |
3.5 |
2 |
16.6 |
5.6 |
13.5 |
4.1 |
3 |
16.4 |
4.7 |
12.6 |
7.8 |
4 |
8.0 |
8.2 |
8.2 |
2.3 |
5 |
13.2 |
3.1 |
11.3 |
4.3 |
6 |
11.9 |
5.8 |
10.7 |
2.6 |
Specific Peak Discharge
at Various Amount of Rainfall
Specific peak
discharge and rainfall analysis based on the data of January 2015–May 2016 are illustrated in Figure 3.
During this period, there were 36 increased discharges were recorded. It shows
that the increase of discharge might be caused by daily rainfall of 12 to 163 mm/day
(Figure 3). However, the increase in rainfall is not always followed by the increase in specific peak discharge. For instance, on February 8, 2015, the rainfall at Kejalen
catchment area was 88 mm (Figure 3) and the specific peak discharge was 1.60
m3second/km2, however Gagakan catchment in February 18,
2015 the rainfall is 99 mm but the specific peak discharge is 1,47 m3/second/km2
(Figure
3). The possible reasons for this condition are the differences
of the rainfall intensity and the ASMC, which is the amount of rainfall in five
days before the occurrence of peak discharge. On February 8, 2015, the rainfall
intensity was 70 mm/hour and the ASMC was
40 mm, while on February 18, 2015, the rainfall intensity was 31 mm/hour and
the ASMC was 30 mm. Regarding to the
impact of ASMC on peak discharge, Pramono et al (2016) have found that the correlation between ASMC
and peak discharge in pine forest is low,
it ranges from 5% to 13%. In contrast, Zehe et al. (2010) have observed that ASMC has strong correlation with direct runoff. This
differences of the research findings is because
the complexity of the interaction between variables within the catchment. However,
the effect of ASMC on the peak discharge is complex,
it is not a single factor, however
it also depend on other variable of the catchment which are soil depth and permeability as well as land cover (Lane & Mackay, 2001).
Figure 3. Specific Peak Discharge and Rainfall
Based on Data from January 2015 to May 2016.
To
examine the relationship between rainfall and specific peak discharge of the study
area, these two variables were inputted into a diagram by using scatter plot and the result is provided in Figure 4. The coefficients of
determination between rainfall and specific peak discharge of Kejalen catchment and Gagakan catchment were 0.64 and 0.61, respectively. As the comparison,
previous study conducted by Gebreyohannes
et al. (2014)
found the result of regression analysis between daily rainfall and peak
discharge, in which the coefficient of determination was 0.50–0.94 with confidence interval of 99% in 11 observed catchments.
In addition, Hartini et al. (2015) applied vector autoregression on rainfall and discharge at
Sojomerto, Juwero, and Glapan, which obtained the relationship between
those variables of 6.4%–70%.
Figure 4. Scatter Plot of
Daily Rainfall (mm) and Specific Peak Discharge (mm)
Specific Peak
Discharge at the Catchments with Different Area Percentages of Teak Forests
Analysis on specific peak discharge of 36 evidences showed a trend in which the Kejalen catchment which has higher percentage
of teak forest has relatively lower peak
discharges in compared to the Gagakan catchment
which has lower teak coverage. The result
are illustrated in Figure
5. However, at extreme rainfall, there is a propensity of uncertainty
response of catchment regarding with peak discharge. It can be examined from the data of extreme rainfall occurred
on December 14, 2015 (Figure 6). At the time, although Kejalen catchment has higher teak coverage in compared to Gagakan catchment, in an extreme rainfall reaching
163 mm/day with rainfall intensity of 70 mm/hour, the peak discharge of Kejalen catchment was higher than of Gagakan catchment.
Figure 5. Scatter Plot of Rainfall vs Specific Peak Discharge of Kejalen and Gagakan
Catchments.
Figure 6. Specific Peak
Discharge at an Extreme Rainfall Event at Kejalen
and Gagakan Catchments
During the rainfall
of 163 mm/day, the peak discharge in Kejalen
was 6.9 mm, which was higher than in Gagakan
catchment of 4.7 mm. It indicates that in heavy rainfall (163 mm/day), the role
of teak forest cover to reduce the peak discharge is insignificant and less effective. According to Barthurst et al. (2011),
forest cover insignificantly reduces the peak discharge at an extreme rainfall,
yet it still has function in controlling the
peak discharge during moderate rainfall. It may be caused by the litters and
organic matters in the forest floor that have been saturated and consequently,
they have no capacity to absorb and store water. In addition, 20% of Gagakan
catchment total area was used for paddy field
(Sawah).
Such land use acts as a sink for rainfall and retains the rainwater before it flows to the river, while there was no paddy field in
Kejalen catchment area.
Although forest
cover has uncertainty on peak discharge, however, an extreme peak discharge actually rarely happens. The cumulative
frequency of the peak discharge is provided
in Figure 7. It can be
seen that the higher the peak discharge, the lower the frequency of peak
discharge. In this study, the dominant specific peak discharge was less than 1 m3/second/km2.
Figure 7. The Percentage of
Peak Discharge Occurrence at the Kejalen
and Gagakan Catchments.
Conclusions
Daily rainfall, of
12 to 163 mm/day, causes the increase of streamflow in Kejalen catchment and Gagakan
catchment. In addition, this study
indicates a trend that the peak discharge at the catchment with larger teak
forest cover (Kejalen catchment) is lower
than those at the catchment with lower teak forest cover (Gagakan catchment), except when extreme
rainfall occurs. Although there is a relationship between the peak discharge
and the percentage of forest cover, the increase
in peak discharge is not only affected by forest cover since it also affected by several factors including daily
rainfall, antecedent soil moisture content, and rainfall intensity. The
coefficient of determination between peak discharge and daily rainfall was 0.64
at the catchment with higher percentage
of forest cover (Kejalen catchment) and 0.61
at the catchment with lower percentage of teak forest (Gagakan catchment).
Acknowledgements
The
authors would like to express gratitude for Watershed Management Technology
Center for the financial support of this research. Furthermore, we would like
to thank to the reviewers who provided constructive suggestions.
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